Mathematical Periodicity of Atomic and Stellar Co-evolution 

Once it is realized that ionized hydrogen is being massively produced in the center of the galaxy, the rest of galaxy evolution becomes traceable by following the line of evolution of the atoms in the stars, because the Line of Evolution that binds everything together is the Evolution of the Atoms. The entire process of atomic and stellar co-evolution occurs with mathematical periodicity, because all of the atoms in the Periodic Table of Atoms have mathematical periodicity, and each naturally occurring generation of atoms was formed stepwise in evolutionary sequence by fusion of atoms of smaller atomic mass into atoms of larger atomic mass. From hydrogen onward, each step in the atomic evolution of the periodic table occurred in the stars. Hydrogen was fused into helium before helium was fused into carbon, which in sequence was fused before oxygen was formed. Accordingly, stellar evolution corresponds directly to the sequence of atomic evolution, because it is the nuclear fusion of atoms of smaller atomic mass into atoms of larger atomic mass that defines the nature of each star. Thereby, the evolution of the stars is directly and inseparably related to the evolution of the atoms. As the atoms have mathematical periodicity, the evolution of the atoms also has mathematical periodicity. As the stars are made of atoms that all have mathematical periodicity, and as each generation of star is directly related to the sequential evolution of the atoms, the evolution of the stars has mathematical periodicity. As the evolution of the stars has mathematical periodicity that directly corresponds to the mathematical periodicity of atomic evolution that results in the Periodic Table of Atoms, there exists within the galaxy and universe a potentially definable Periodic Table of Stars.

From seed to tree, from cell to creature, from atom to galaxy, the pattern of growth and evolution we see in Nature consistently occurs from inside outward. Once it is firmly realized that evolution proceeds systematically from inside outward in the 4^th spatial dimension from smaller to larger magnitudes of mass, from simpler form to more complex form, from particles to atoms to stars to galaxy formation, the whole of galaxy evolution will fall into place. That’s worth repeating, because this serves as both introduction to and summation of what is about to unfold in evidence within this treatise: The entire systematic sequence of galaxy evolution unfolds from inside outward on the axis of the 4^th spatial dimension with mathematical precision. I can say this with some degree of certainty because the entire sequence of Atomic and Stellar and Atomic-Molecular Physical Universe Evolution proceeds with mathematical precision. This foundation of mathematical precision in the universe is why from a double-helical template of DNA molecules that resides in the nucleus of a single cell, the complex anatomical structure of every human being who ever lived was folded into form within a womb in nine months by the doubling process of replication and multiplication of cells.

Cosmologically, this brings us to the boundary between Known and Unknown, because if you ask the scientific community which came first, the galaxies or the stars, nobody knows. Or at least nobody knows with scientific certainty. So let’s begin here, because we have reached the Edge of Knowledge where theory must begin to light the way. 

The Line of Evolution that forms and binds everything together in the physical universe is the sequential Evolution of the Atoms. Strong force within the nucleus of hydrogen binds the quarks and gluons together with mathematical precision. Gravitational force from the collective gathering of hydrogen forms and binds and ignites each star. Nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the stars leads to the eventual formation of all the other atoms in the universe. Electromagnetic force between the atoms binds and defines the atomic-molecular structure of the entire Physical Universe.

Stellar evolution and atomic evolution are inseparably interrelated, such that the sequential Evolution of the Atoms is directly reflected in the sequential Evolution of the Stars. The sequence of stellar evolution has been scientifically defined, and the star populations in the galaxies have been regionally mapped according to their sequence of atomic evolution as metal-poor Population II Stars and metal-rich Population I Stars. Locking the whole of stellar evolution throughout the universe to a single Line of Time (Timeline of the Original Big Bang) is woefully misleading, however, and has so distorted the process of galaxy evolution that the evidence for what is happening cannot be seen. As will be demonstrated in this treatise, the systematic sequence of atomic and stellar evolution, and the regional distribution of these populations of stars within the galaxies, and the regional distribution of atomic-molecular magnitudes of visible galaxy dust, provide clear and conclusive evidence that galaxies systematically grow and evolve from inside outward. In order to recognize this process and define the mainstream sequence of galaxy evolution, however, I had to develop a galaxy-based frame of reference for the timing and sequence of stellar evolution.

The process of universe evolution—atomic, stellar and galaxy evolution—is too complex and multifactorial to be reduced to and confined within a single Line of Time. The process is composed of multiple interrelated Lines of Evolution, each of which is a 3-dimensional thread in a larger multidimensional matrix. On Earth, everyone can see that the lifecycle of the individual and the evolution of the human species are not the same thing. Yet, at the same time, collectively speaking, it is the lifecycle of the individual, generation by generation, that gives rise to the evolution of the species. In the Galaxy, the lifecycle of the stars and the process and sequence of stellar evolution have a comparable relationship. It is the individual lifecycle of the stars that gives rise, generation by generation, cycle by cycle, to atomic evolution and the sequential evolution of populations of stars. By tracing the lifecycle and evolution of the star populations within the galaxy from ongoing Big-Bang perspective, the reason for their regional distribution within each galaxy became apparent to me, which leads us to another—Surprise!—because thoroughly convincing visible evidence shows that galaxy evolution did not occur in the way it is described by present-day science at all. The galaxies did not collapse into their present form from pre-existing atomic mass. The galaxies materialized and grew from inside outward into their present form from the massive radio-emitting particle jets and torus of circumnuclear plasma that are actively materialized and exploding outward from the “supermassive black hole” at galaxy center, which is visible evidence of an active and ongoing Big-Bang process. As a result of ongoing Big-Bang hydrogen production at the center of the galaxy, the entire process of atomic and stellar evolution occurs within the space of the galaxy. The systematic growth and evolution of the galaxy become evident to me by aligning the sequence of atomic and stellar evolution within the galaxy, and mapping and redefining the relative age of the star populations based on the sequence of atomic evolution within the space of the galaxy.

Since the 1950s, the stars in the galaxy have been grouped by age, chemical composition and location in the galaxy into Population I Stars and Population II Stars, which regionally locates stars in the galaxy that are at different stages of atomic evolution. Population I Stars (metal-rich stars) are relatively rich in elements heavier than helium and are said to be the “younger” stars and star clusters, because they are said to have been formed 1,000,000 to 100,000,000 years ago. Population II Stars (metal-poor stars) are relatively rich in hydrogen and helium and poor in elements heavier than helium. Population II stars are said to be the “older” stars and star clusters, because they are all said to have been formed 1,000,000,000 to 15,000,000,000 years ago, according to the timeline of the original Big Bang Theory. The designation “younger” star population and “older” star population are relative terms that are somewhat confusing, and at times misleading, because the age of the individual stars and groups of stars are being defined relative to a single evolutionary Line of Time, the theoretical timeline of the original Big Bang Theory. Hence, stars that are actively being born in the globular clusters of metal-poor Population II regions of galaxies are referred to as “blue stragglers” because their star birth process was supposed to have been completed 1,000,000,000 to 15,000,000,000 years ago. Yet, clearly, these “older” stars are young blue stars. The terms “younger” and “older” to characterize the relative age of these star populations becomes disconnected from the actual process of atomic and stellar evolution when we look at the “Irregular Blue Galaxies”. As we will see from the Hubble Space Telescope’s Medium Deep Survey of the 3-8 billion light-year, look-back region of the universe, those “blue dwarf” galaxies were found to be the most common type of galaxy in the universe. That myriad of “blue dwarf” galaxies are all composed of enormously vigorous starburst activity that is producing young stars; yet these young blue stars correspond as a group to metal-poor “older” Population II stars. Young “old” stars? Relative to what? To the age of all the stars in the universe in the past and present? To the sequence of atomic evolution that defines these population groups? To the single timeline of the original Big Bang Theory? The answers to these questions are respectively yes, yes and yes to each frame of reference. However, what happens if there are a few “blue dwarf” galaxies in the nearby universe? Which evidently there are. These stars would not be “older” in any meaningful sense of the word, except in reference to the single timeline of the original Big Bang Theory.

While formulating this theory for an ongoing Big-Bang pattern of galaxy evolution, a galaxy based frame of reference was needed to define the relational significance of each galaxy’s regional populations of stars, rather than a priori categories of “older” and “younger” that lump all stellar evolution in the universe together on a single line of evolutionary time. According to this new paradigm, galaxies can potentially be born at anytime and anywhere in space, and each galaxy’s complement of stars evolves locally from the regional supply of hydrogen produced by the Big-Bang process at galaxy center. The entire sequence of atomic and stellar evolution thereby occurs within the space of the galaxy, and the process of atomic and stellar co-evolution directly results in the mainstream sequence of galaxy evolution. Using a galaxy frame of reference rather than universe frame of reference for stellar evolution makes it possible to examine the lifecycle of the stars and regional stellar population evolution as component parts of composite galaxy formation and evolution.

Clearly, the galaxy is the structural and functional unit of the physical universe, just like the cells are the structural and functional units of the physical body. When I think of the galaxies as cells of the universe, it helps me visualize the large scale structure of the universe in a familiar way. Clearly, all the cells (galaxies) of the body and subcellular organelles (stars) of the cells were not collectively born at the same time. And the age and brief lifecycle of the subcellular organelles (stars) and cells in the body do not correspond directly with the chronological age of a person’s whole physical body (age of universe). The subcellular organelles (stars) grew into existence inside the cells (galaxies) which multiplied and grew into clustered groups (clusters of galaxies) which formed into organized sheets of structural tissue (superclusters of galaxies) that collectively constitute a functioning organ (visible universe) in one of the organ systems (unknown universes) of the organism (Physical Body of the Cosmos).

This metaphorical comparison of magnitudes is not exaggerated thinking. If we plot the size of the universe known to our species since the dawn of human consciousness, this universe has never grown smaller. With every step of sight we take, with every new telescope we make, the Cosmos and universe grows astronomically larger! The proportionality of this analogy has helped me to create the space of mind I needed to hold a larger vision. Within this analogy of the Corpus of Cosmos that we are made of and exist within, it is like we are standing on a molecular component of a subcellular organelle gazing at the cell we are in (Milky Way Galaxy) and the surrounding cells (galaxies) that are stretching away in sheets (superclusters of galaxies) that disappear into the blackness. And here we are wondering about the birth date and chronological age of the Physical Body of the Cosmos of which we are but a molecular member in a speck of region in a single cell, and using a Point of Singularity in the blackness of space beyond our sight to mark the moment of birth of the entire Cosmos.

When science became preoccupied with measuring the chronological Age of Universe, and began the practice of measuring the location of actual celestial objects in space from a hypothetical Point of Singularity that is nowhere in sight (Big Bang Date of Birth of the Universe), rather than from the planetary Point of Reality in space we are physically standing on (Planet Earth), I think a precisely defined layer of illusion was interposed between our organ of vision and the objects in our sight that is distorting our interpretation of the facts we see through the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). What we Know, and all we know for certain, is how many light-years into the look-back past we can see. And there is nothing in the HST deep fields of intergalactic space in the look-back past that even remotely suggests that we are approaching a region where the space of the universe is contracting toward a Point of Singularity, even though we are supposed to be more than halfway back to the theoretical Origin of Universe.

Departure from the Space-Time frame of reference allows the data of what we see to be looked at with new eyes in an entirely new way, which I believe will lead to a renaissance in scientific thinking about the Process and Sequence of Galaxy Growth and Evolution. 

Galaxy Evolution

 Let’s look at the sequence of events that happens when hydrogen is formed and massively produced in the nuclear center of the galaxy, then we will look at scientific evidence that supports each step of this theory.

The process and sequence of stellar evolution is essentially the same as it is presently envisioned, but galaxy evolution is radically different. Gravity implosion in the Pre-Bang Universe of Energy and Particles gives rise to the supermassive black hole density that results in Big-Bang ignition of quark-gluon fusion into baryons (hydrogen), which ignites the visible appearance of the quasar and is the beginning of luminous quasar evolution. Hydrogen proton-electron plasma is continuously produced and jettisoned from the young quasar, which causes the quasar to gradually transform in appearance from a radio-silent luminous quasi-stellar object (QSO) to a radio-loud luminous quasar, and then into a dust enshrouded and therefore less luminous quasar that is strongly in evidence identical with the “supermassive black hole” that has been identified in the center of each active galactic nucleus (AGN). Hydrogen floods into empty space from the giant particle and radio jets that are exploding out of the radio-loud quasars, and exploding out of the center of radio galaxies, and exploding out of the “supermassive black hole” in the center of every active galactic nucleus (AGN), which are each sequential stages in the systematic process of galaxy growth and evolution. Hydrogen flooding from these jets accumulates into a surrounding hydrogen atmosphere, the same halo of neutral hydrogen gas that is observed by astronomers to surround every visible galaxy, which then gathers into the nebulae that form the first generations of helium-producing stars, which then begin to evolve through their main sequence lifecycle from young blue to old red stars. These first-generation stars correspond to the galaxy’s Population II regions, which are metal-poor stars rich in hydrogen and helium. All stars are born from hydrogen, from the nebulous clouds of hydrogen gas that result from this ongoing Big-Bang process at galaxy center. No stars originate from helium, because there are no helium nebulae from which they can be born. All helium is the result of thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen. This explains why all new stars, including metal-rich Population I stars, are composed mostly of hydrogen and secondly of helium.

The entire process of galaxy birth, growth and evolution is visible through the Hubble Space Telescope’s deep fields and nearby universe. The earliest phase of visible galaxy growth and evolution is characterized by intensely active starburst formation of metal-poor Population II stars that make their first visible appearance in the form of dwarf-sized Irregular Blue Galaxies. From Irregular Blue Dwarf beginning, metal-poor Population II stars continue to be born and form into globular clusters that progressively increase in size and number, spreading in orbital array outward from star-dense center to star-sparse periphery until the hydrogen-rich galaxy space becomes symmetrically filled with clusters of stars and is recognizable as an elliptical galaxy. As the generations of metal-poor Population II stars pass through their lifecycle from Hertzsprung-Russell mainstream sequence stars to hydrogen-core depleted red giants to supernova explosions, and as the interstellar space within the galaxy becomes increasingly filled with the ash of thermonuclear fusion, interstellar dust begins to form in the center of the galaxy that contains atoms of higher atomic mass, and metal-rich Population I stars begin to be formed in the resulting metal-rich clouds of dust. This ongoing sequence accounts for why the central bulge of galaxies at maturity contain both Population I and Population II stars. The metal-poor Population II stars are continuously produced from the ongoing Big-Bang production of hydrogen and metal-rich Population I stars are continuously produced by stellar evolution. As a result of ongoing Big-Bang baryonogenesis and hydrogen formation and thermonuclear fusion, the interstellar dust steadily increases in the circumnuclear region of the galaxy, and visible molecular rings of dust begin to spread centrifugally outward into a plane perpendicular to the galaxy’s axis of spin, which gradually changes the shape of the galaxy from spherical to elliptical to a centrifugal disk with a central bulge. As the atomic-molecular amassment of dust continues to accumulate, the visible rings of atomic-molecular dust become denser and centrifugally spill outward into bars and growing spiral arms. As the maturing spiral galaxy is in effect a centrifuge that concentrates the metal-rich atomic-molecular clouds of dust in the galactic plane, this accounts for why the disk of the spiral galaxy contains only metal-rich Population I stars. As the disk of the spiral galaxy grows in size, the recycling lifecycles of the metal-poor Population II stars gradually become incorporated into the growing spiral disk and the spiral bulge gradually decreases in size. The bulge and halo of globular clusters of stars in every spiral galaxy is the remnant of the elliptical galaxy that gradually reformed into the spiral disk, which accounts for why the globular clusters of stars in the halo are metal-poor Population II stars.

Throughout this sequence of galaxy growth and evolution, the ongoing explosive Big-Bang process inside the quasar at galaxy center continues to massively produce its products of baryonogenesis that are being jettisoned outward in readily visible radio and optical particle jets that extend all the way from the nuclear center of the galaxy to far beyond the outer optical edge of the galaxy’s most distant stars. The quasar’s giant particle jets are what form the enormous halo of atomic hydrogen that surrounds the entire galaxy. This corresponds to the halo of 21-cm radio emission neutral hydrogen that extends outward to twice the diameter of the optically visible galaxy, and corresponds as well to the 21-cm clouds of interstellar neutral hydrogen atoms that are distributed in the galaxy’s spiral arms, which accounts for why the metal-rich Population I stars consist of over 90% hydrogen. The reason the dark halo of 21-cm cold atomic hydrogen has been observed to have a hole in the middle at galaxy center is because that corresponds to the hot nuclear center of the galaxy where the newly formed hydrogen is still in plasma and ionic form. The reason the dark halo of the galaxy has been observed to contain far more gravitational mass than the optically visible galaxy can account can be attributable to a combination of three factors: 1) the gravitational effects of the pre- and non-atomic particles of Dark Matter in the Pre-Bang Universe of Energy and Particles that gravitationally formed the supermassive black hole at galaxy center; 2) gravitational effects of dark matter that is being produced by the astronomical jets of particle mass prior to star formation; 3) massive amounts of atomic-molecular intragalactic dust that result from stellar evolution and supernova explosions.

This entire theoretical scenario is based on the premise that the supermassive black hole in quasars and at the nuclear center of each active galaxy is the site of an ongoing Big-Bang process. In the next chapter we will look at recent evidence that supports this hypothesis.

Origin and Evolution of the Universe, a Unified Scientific Theory by Paul Hollister, M.D. Copyright 2004

Home | Table of Contents | Site Guide | Author's Window | The First 100

Author's e-mail address: Hollister@Origin-of-Universe.com

Send mail to webmaster@Origin-of-Universe.com with comments or questions about this web site.

Copyright © 2004 Origin and Evolution of the Universe, a Unified Scientific Theory by Paul Hollister, M.D.